Conventions on the protection of underwater cultural heritage

Story hunters and treasure hunters

Diving has long stirred the spirits of restless explorers. One of the earlier underwater expeditions aimed at acquiring archaeological finds was conducted in 1775 by Greek divers who, using diving bells in the Tiber, searched for ancient artifacts for English antiquarians. The first scientific underwater archaeological research is considered to be the diving of geologist Adolph von Morlot in 1854, who, on the banks of Lake Geneva, used an improvised metal diving helmet system powered by air from the surface to document the prehistoric settlement of Grande-Cité. On Slovenian soil, or rather – in Slovenian waters – Dragotin Dežman, curator of the Kranjska Regional Museum, organized an archaeological survey of the riverbed of the Ljubljanica in the area of the ancient settlement of Navport (today's Vrhnika) in 1884. The project was designed with the aim of acquiring new exhibition items and data on the remains of a Roman port. The study was successfully conducted by diving experts from the Austro-Hungarian Navy, who used soft diving suits and an air compressor for the dives. One of the most significant and world-renowned underwater operations was carried out in 1900 by Greek divers – sponge collectors. After accidentally discovering the wreck of a Roman ship from the 1st century BC on the Greek island of Antikythera, they carried out a series of dives to depths of around 50 meters using heavy diving suits and, with the help of the Greek Royal Navy, brought up numerous objects from the valuable cargo of the ship, including bronze and marble sculptures and an enigmatic Antikythera mechanism. Since then, the remains have been kept by the State Archaeological Museum in Athens.

The pioneers of underwater remains research were bold and resourceful, but their scope was limited by the available diving equipment. With the technological breakthrough in the second half of the 20th century, the underwater world became much more accessible. The invention of the self-contained scuba diving apparatus (SCUBA) facilitated and popularized diving in coastal waters. The development of technological equipment for remote exploration of the seabed and its subsoil (sonar systems, magnetometers), geographic information systems, submarines, and remotely operated and autonomous underwater vehicles (ROV and AUV) then took the boundaries of exploration to unprecedented depths. Underwater cultural heritage thus became accessible, popular, and fascinating. Two currents of modern explorers emerged. On the one hand, there were those driven by scientific curiosity and the desire to give the public access to knowledge and information. They were aware of the vulnerability of sites and the importance of the archaeological context of the finds. They used the technological equipment to preserve and rescue the heritage and to extract as much data as possible from the archaeological context during the research. They were story hunters. The Slaven example represents the exploration of the Mary Rose, a warship of the British Royal Navy with 400–500 men on board and 60–80 cannons, that sank in 1545 during the Battle of Solent. The ship was unsuccessfully attempted to be raised already in the 16th and 19th centuries, and its location was then forgotten. After its wreckage was rediscovered in 1979, the non-profit Mary Rose Trust was established, which undertook extensive and scientifically advanced underwater archaeological excavation, a spectacular lifting of the ship’s hull, its demanding thirty-year conservation, and its presentation in a museum in Portsmouth. On the other hand, those who were attracted by the glint of gold were exploring the depths to discover and acquire objects of commercial value. The scientific and cultural value of the sites did not interest them; the destruction of archaeological contexts was merely a collateral damage to the business. They were treasure hunters. For illustration: British commercial ship-cargo salvage specialist Michael Hatcher led the recovery of artifacts from the wreckage of the Dutch merchant ship Geldermalsen, which sank in 1752 in the Riau archipelago in Indonesia in 1986. The operation was financed by investors who expected to profit from the sale of the valuables. It was carried out without scientists or archaeological research; the ship itself was destroyed during the intervention. 126 gold bars, 160,000 pieces of Chinese porcelain, and other extracted artifacts were successfully sold at an auction in Amsterdam, and the International Congress of Maritime Museums (ICMM) publicly condemned the action.

Convention

These and similar cases have revealed the attractiveness, vulnerability, and lack of legal protection of underwater cultural heritage in many waters under the jurisdiction of individual countries, especially in the open sea, where there are no state jurisdictions. The international community has negotiated and coordinated solutions for decades. Then, on November 2, 2001, UNESCO adopted the Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage in Paris, which brought legally binding provisions for the management of this heritage to the countries that are parties to it and established a framework for cooperation in activities in international waters. In the convention, »all traces of human existence that have cultural, historical, or archaeological characteristics and have been periodically or continuously part of the underwater environment for at least one hundred years« are considered the common heritage of humanity that must be preserved for future generations. The content of the convention stems from the recognition that the value of heritage is inextricably linked to its archaeological and natural context, which constitutes the basis for its understanding and interpretation. The fundamental principles of the convention are that the preservation of heritage in its original environment (in situ) must be considered the first and preferred option before any activities aimed at that heritage are permitted or initiated, and that heritage must not be commercially exploited (the heritage must not become subject to trade or sale). The annex to the convention contains 36 rules defining ethical and professional standards for underwater archaeological research. These must follow scientific methodology, be non-commercial, socially responsible, and focused on the public interest of preserving and interpreting heritage. The adoption of the convention was lengthy and politically demanding, as it involved sensitive issues of ownership, economic interests, and state sovereignty. This year, as we celebrate the 25th anniversary of the Treaty, 81 countries have signed it. In a world where multilateralism is perhaps in decline, every one of them counts.

In domestic waters

In Slovenia we have a rich underwater cultural heritage and a long and diverse history of its exploration. Teams of underwater archaeologists and archaeologists have researched the Roman ports along the coast of Slovenian Istria and the shipwrecks in the Koper Bay, the prehistoric settlements on the Ljubljana Marshes, the ruins of vessels and archaeological finds, the rich course of the Ljubljanica River, the Bronze Age water cult city in Lake Blejsko Jezero, the remains of a Roman bridge in Sava and the medieval bridge in Dravina, as well as numerous other underwater sites. The driving force behind the development of Slovenian underwater archaeology has always been dedicated enthusiasts who are – and still are – facing a lack of systematic support and the absence of specialized personnel. We ratified the Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage in 2008. We incorporated its principles and rules into national legislation in the field of cultural heritage protection. We have established strict professional standards and strongly regulated the conduct of archaeological research. Our underwater cultural heritage is thus in good hands. At least on paper.

Text prepared by Jaka Bizjak, ZVKDS, OE Piran